 |
Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies[1]
Archivists are the professionals responsible for the identification,
selection, protection, organization, and description of archival records
and papers and, eventually, for their accessibility to any user.[2] By ensuring that archival documents are
identified, preserved, and made available in a systematic fashion, archivists
help to secure society's cultural heritage, protect legal rights and privileges,
and contribute to the effective management of a wide range of institutions.
Without a careful selection of records, our social, cultural, institutional,
and individual heritages will be lost. Without the preservation of legal
documents, individual and institutional rights cannot be preserved and
protected. And without the proper management of administrative records,
government and organizations cannot be held accountable. Archives are
thus essential in a democratic and educated society.
Archival studies programs have grown and matured since the promulgation
of the previous Society of American Archivists (SAA) education guidelines
in 1994. The present guidelines recognize that fact and serve as a benchmark
against which graduate programs in archival studies may be measured. These
guidelines establish minimum standards for archival education programs
in terms of mission, curriculum, faculty, and infrastructure.
These guidelines recognize that there are a number of appropriate venues
for archival studies programs, which may or may not offer a separate degree
in archival studies. Archival education programs have traditionally been
established in both history and library science environments. The guidelines
encourage this diversity of institutional homes for archival programs
as well as variety in the emphases or specializations available within
individual programs. Moreover, these guidelines are intended to support
programs that stress the uniqueness, autonomy and independence of the
archival profession, as well as those that are more interdisciplinary
and emphasize archivists' relationships with and inter-dependence with
other professionals.
The ultimate goal of these guidelines is to improve the quality of archival
studies graduate programs, specifically by raising the minimum expectations
of students and universities. By establishing these basic guidelines as
minimum standards for archival studies programs, SAA also hopes to encourage
the continued development of more extensive and more comprehensive programs,
and by doing so, to improve the profession by better educating archivists.[3]
I. ARCHIVAL EDUCATION: MISSION AND GOALS
Any graduate program in archival studies must define its mission, goals,
and objectives. For example, some programs may seek only to educate "generalists"
with knowledge of all areas of archival administration. Other programs
may also seek to prepare specialists in one or more areas of archival
administration, such as electronic records management, historical manuscripts,
or management of institutional archives. Still other programs may emphasize
interdisciplinary studies that link, for example, library, archival, and
museum professionals. However, to qualify as an archival studies program
(as opposed to a more specialized historical manuscripts program or a
more generalized information science program) the curriculum should focus
on core archival knowledge areas as the foundation for specialization
or interdisciplinary connections.
The mission, goals, and objectives of the program should be stated in
terms of educational results the program seeks to achieve and should be
consistent with the parent institution's mission and culture.[4] They should be developed through a broad-based planning
process that involves the constituencies that the program seeks to serve.
The curriculum should express these program objectives, and should be
continually reviewed and evaluated based upon evolving professional concerns
and issues. Regardless of the organizational setting, master's level archival
studies programs must be coherent, cohesive, and identifiable.
The importance and complexity of archival work require that individuals
entering the profession receive a strong graduate-level archival education,
which must be based on core archival knowledge. Archival knowledge, however,
must be supplemented by knowledge drawn from other disciplines, such as
history, sociology, anthropology, economics, and/or library and information
science. In order that students receive the education necessary to do
archival work, fully developed graduate programs in archival studies must
establish a curriculum that achieves the following goals:
- Provides students with a solid foundation in the theory, methodology,
and practice of archival studies, and in the scholarship of their discipline;
- Strengthens this foundation by giving students the opportunity to
acquire knowledge from other relevant disciplines;
- Assists students in developing critical thinking and decision-making
skills for records and papers as part of the larger cultural heritage;
- Prepares students to conduct and communicate scholarly research for
the enrichment and development of their own discipline; and
- Inculcates in students the sense of their professional and social
responsibilities and the knowledge of the ethical and legal dimensions
of their work.
Graduate archival education, in contrast to archival training, is both
academic and professional; therefore, it includes both original research
and experiential learning. Ultimately, archival education creates an intellectual
framework that enables students to understand the ideas on which their
profession is founded, to engage in the development of archival principles,
and to apply this knowledge in a wide variety of settings. In contrast,
archival training focuses on building skills or acquiring practical knowledge
according to a replicable pattern, or on developing a specialization in
certain areas.
The graduate of an archival studies program should have a thorough knowledge
and understanding of archival principles and techniques and should be
prepared to work independently in performing all basic archival functions.[5]
The variety and complexity of institutional settings and of archival records
and papers require a broad and comprehensive understanding of archival
theory and its practical application.
No graduate program in any discipline can provide all the scholarly and
experiential knowledge needed for its practitioners. However, by inculcating
in students the attributes of professionalism, a graduate program can
cause students to realize that professional education is a lifelong undertaking,
involving questioning accepted ideas and methods, revising received wisdom,
and developing professional standards. Lifelong learning enables archivists
to maintain knowledge and skills and to master new professional knowledge
and techniques as the profession develops and changes.
These guidelines therefore focus on the essential elements of master's
level graduate archival education, independent of institutional placement
and degree offered. The multiple options for such programs provide a rich
diversity that enables master's programs to develop individual emphases
and to provide different specializations. Interdisciplinary knowledge
from other disciplines enriches and expands the archival curriculum to
meet a wide range of needs and interests. While this offers students choices
for their education, all such programs should be centered on a common
core of archival knowledge.
II. CURRICULUM
A graduate program in archival studies should provide students with a
solid foundation in archival studies. The curriculum should focus on the
theory, methodology, and practice of archives augmented by instruction
in administrative, legal, economic, historical, management, and information
studies as they relate to archival work. Study of these related areas
should be informed by an understanding of the nature of archives, and
the ways in which the methods and perspectives of these fields contribute
to professional archival practice.
The body of knowledge that a student should master as part of a graduate
archival education is comprised of both core archival knowledge and interdisciplinary
knowledge.
- Core archival knowledge provides the theoretical and practical
basis necessary to work as a professional archivist.
- Interdisciplinary knowledge introduces students to other disciplines,
knowledge of which will deepen their understanding of archival work.
Interdisciplinary knowledge also allows students to specialize in specific
aspects of archival work or to function in truly cross-disciplinary
settings.
During the course of a graduate program, eighteen (18) semester credit
hours should be in areas defined as core archival knowledge. Based on
the demands of the graduate program's institution and the interests of
the student, the remaining credits may be in interdisciplinary knowledge
areas. Research should be integrated throughout the curriculum, and an
important element of any program should be an original research project
resulting in a scholarly paper or thesis. The program also should include
practical experience, such as a practicum or internship.
A. CORE ARCHIVAL KNOWLEDGE
Rationale:
The identity of a profession is founded on a body of knowledge belonging
exclusively to it, and on a professional culture that arises from a common
history, a united purpose, a shared vocabulary, and collective values,
norms, and standards. Archival core knowledge is the heart of an archival
studies program. It should occupy a dominant position in the curriculum
and should be taught by professional archivists or, for specialist topics
such as preservation, by technical experts. Core archival knowledge embraces
three separate but interrelated facets of archival studies: Knowledge
of Archival Functions (theory and methodology associated with specific
areas of archival work); Knowledge of the Profession (history of
the profession and evolution of archival practice); and Contextual
Knowledge (the contexts within which records are created, managed,
and kept). Because archival knowledge and professional culture transcend
geographical and national boundaries, each component should incorporate
an international and multicultural perspective.
Components:
1. Knowledge of Archival Functions
Archival education should teach the fundamental concepts concerning:
the nature of archives, records and papers, and archival functions (archival
theory); the techniques for performing archival functions (archival methodology);
and the implementation of theory and method in archival institutions (archival
practice). Instruction should cover the history of archival theory and
methods and their articulation in the professional literature (archival
scholarship). The scope of archival education should encompass the functions
of archival work and should address both current best practices and related
management issues.
a) Appraisal and Acquisition: The theory, policies, and
procedures archivists use to identify, evaluate, acquire, and authenticate
records and papers, in all formats, which have enduring value to records
creators, institutions, researchers, and society. Appraisal entails, among
other things, understanding what makes records and papers authentic, reliable,
and useful to institutions, individuals, legal and financial authorities,
and other constituents.
b) Arrangement and Description: The intellectual and physical
organization of archival records and papers in all media and formats,
according to archival principles and institutional considerations, and
the development of descriptive tools and systems that provide both control
of and access to collections. Theory should link to practice through teaching
methods and technology applications.
c) Preservation: The integration and implementation of
administrative activities to ensure the physical protection of records
and papers in all formats, the intellectual preservation of the records
and papers through reformatting (e.g., digitization or microfilming),
and assuring their continued accessibility by researchers. Preservation
knowledge is based on: a firm grounding in preservation history; research
into the nature of the materials and treatments; current techniques; and
administrative studies and management issues. Preservation also requires
the systematic application of appraisal criteria before applying preservation
measures.
d) Reference and Access: The development of policies and
procedures designed to serve the information needs of various user groups,
based on evaluation of institutional mandates and constituencies, the
nature of the collections, relevant laws and ethical considerations, and
appropriate technologies. Instruction should also include the study of
user behavior and the interaction between archivist and user in the reference
process.
e) Outreach and Advocacy: The theories and practices archivists
use to evaluate archival constituencies and their needs, and to develop
programs to promote increased use, resources, visibility, and support.
f) Management and Administration: The principles
and practices archivists use to facilitate all aspects of archival work
through careful planning and administration of the repository and its
institutional resources. At all career levels, archivists manage resources
and make decisions that should be based on a thorough understanding of
organizational management, systems analysis, program planning, budgeting,
fundraising, grantsmanship, human resources, and the management of buildings,
facilities, and equipment.
2. Knowledge of the Profession
Archival education should provide students with an understanding of the
way in which the profession has developed and the evolution of specific
practices within the profession. It should teach students about the nature
of archival institutions, the values and ethics archivists apply to their
work, and the perspectives archivists contribute to the information professions.
Archival records and papers must be understood in the context of their
creation, preservation, and use. Students should graduate with the knowledge
necessary to think and act creatively in their daily work and throughout
their careers.
a) History of Archives and the Archival Profession:A graduate
program in archival studies should teach the historical development of
recordmaking and recordkeeping systems and of archives in various civilizations,
ranging from the ancient world to modern times. This instruction should
cover: the structure of the archival community/profession from a global
perspective in general and related to North America in particular; the
types of archival repositories and programs in existence in the United
States and Canada, along with their policies and procedures; and the legislation
and regulations governing archives and influencing archival work in the
United States and Canada. Instruction also should address the history
of the archival profession; its missions, roles, and values; and the
profession's contemporary concerns.
b) Records and Cultural Memory: Records and papers constitute
an important part of the written memory of individuals and society and
provide the basis for holding governments and organizations accountable
and for protecting the rights of individuals. Archival institutions thus
play a significant role in society. However, they are only part of the
fabric of cultural memory. Archivists and archives work in cooperation
with other professions and institutions such as libraries and museums
to preserve and provide access to cultural memory and to ensure accountability.
Students should understand the interrelationship among archives and other
keepers of cultural heritage, and the ways in which records contribute
to that heritage.
c) Ethics and Values: The archival profession bases its
system of ethics and values on the responsibilities of archivists in identifying,
preserving, protecting, and making available the records, papers, and
information resources for which they have responsibility. Students should
be familiar with the SAA Code of Ethics, its underlying principles and
perspectives, and its relationship to other archival and information profession
codes. Students should understand how the ethics and values of the profession
inform decisions and how to apply those ethics and values to their work.
3. Contextual Knowledge
All archivists should have a basic understanding of the contexts within
which records are created and kept, and of management and technology theory
and practice as they apply to archival work. This knowledge should be
integrated throughout the core curriculum wherever applicable so as to
foster a sound working knowledge that can be applied to daily activities.
Some of these areas of knowledge may also be studied more fully as disciplines
in their own right (and thus are also listed under Interdisciplinary Knowledge,
below).
a) Social and Cultural Systems:Knowledge of social and
cultural systems is important for two reasons. First, archivists must
understand the institutional structures and systems that form the context
in which records and papers are created, maintained, and used. They should
also understand the recordkeeping implications of social and cultural
systems and the organizational structures and procedures used by all types
of public and private institutions to ensure accountability. Second, archivists
work within an institutional context. Effective management of records
and papers necessitates an understanding of the political, social, and
economic dynamics within an institution, and how to achieve the archival
repository's goals and objectives.
b) Legal and Financial Systems:Records and papers, and
the recordkeeping systems of both institutions and individuals, reflect
the legal and financial systems in which they were created and demonstrate
organizational and individual accountability. Archival core knowledge
includes the origin, development, structure, and functioning of legal
and financial systems, including federal, state, and local laws as well
as the regulatory environment. This should include both public and private
sector jurisdictions as well as the impact of such issues on personal
records and papers. Knowledge of legal issues also includes privacy rights,
freedom of information, and property and literary rights related to records
and papers.
c) Records and Information Management: The principles involved
in managing records and information throughout their full life cycle,
from origination to eventual archival retention or other disposition.
The work of archivists relates closely to the responsibilities of records
and information managers, and in some institutional environments the duties
of each are blended together in a single function. Archivists must be
able to analyze an institution's structure, decision-making, and recordkeeping
systems, and apply that knowledge to decisions regarding other archival
functions.
d) Digital Records and Access Systems: Archivists should
be competent to apply archival knowledge to records and papers in any
format.In all areas of archival knowledge, a sound professional
education needs to incorporate an understanding of the nature, access
issues, and preservation challenges of digital records and papers. This
should include information on the development of new media formats and
document genres, and changing information technologies for the creation,
maintenance, and use of records and papers. Additionally, educational
programs should help students to use and develop access systems for records
and papers and to identify and apply appropriate technological solutions
to facilitate all aspects of archival work.
B. INTERDISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE
Rationale:
Archivists, like all professionals, must rely on knowledge, methods,
and perspectives from beyond their own discipline. The interdisciplinary
nature of archival studies arises from the complexity of the records and
papers, the contexts of their creation, the multiplicity of their potential
uses, and from the many roles that archivists fill. Archivists need to
be knowledgeable about significant theories, methods, and practices of
some or all of these fields.
Components:
1. Information Technology
The significant records and papers of today's society are increasingly
being created, reformatted, stored, described, and retrieved in electronic
form. Familiarity with networking, telecommunications systems, hardware,
and software is fundamental to performing archival functions in many institutional
settings.… Students also need to understand human/computer interaction
to design and develop effective systems for users. The curriculum could
include opportunities to develop skills in database management, spreadsheet
applications, information architecture, website design and creation, and/or
desktop publishing. Also valuable are an understanding of metadata, familiarity
with markup languages, and basic programming skills.
2. Conservation
Beyond the core archival knowledge in preservation issues, appropriate
interdisciplinary knowledge may be needed in conservation practices, that
is, a range of intervention activities to stabilize materials in their
original format by chemical or physical means. Archivists should have
sufficient knowledge to be able to judge the efficacy of conservation
treatments, and to evaluate the appropriate conservation treatment for
a document or group of documents.
3. Research Design and Execution
An understanding of research design and execution is important for enabling
archivists to provide effective service to a wide variety of researchers
and to evaluate archival operations from the perspective of users. It
is also used to permit archivists to assess the status of research in
their own discipline, to undertake new research, and to blend theoretical
and empirical aspects of archival studies into scholarly investigations.
4. History and Historical Methods
History provides an understanding of the context in which records and
papers are created, maintained, and used, and of the political, legal,
economic, social, and cultural systems that shape society. History assists
archivists in understanding the evolution of organizations and their functions,
as well as the activities of individuals, contributing to more effective
archival selection, appraisal, description, and user service. Archivists
also need to exercise the historian's skills in evaluating evidence and
the context of its creation. Knowledge of historical method enables archivists
to understand the many varieties of archival research use and to provide
more knowledgeable reference assistance to all users.
5. Management
Archivists should understand how to manage resources and to make decisions
based on systematic analysis. They often must demonstrate programmatic
vision and innovation. Thus, archivists need to know the fundamental principles
related to organizational management, strategic planning, administrative
leadership, human resources management, financial management, resource
allocation, fundraising, and facilities management.
6. Organizational Theory
The study of theories of organizational development, management, and
culture is important in archival education because it provides the tools
for understanding the evolution and nature of organizations that create
records and assists students in understanding how to be successful within
the institutions in which they will be employed as archivists. Knowledge
of different models of organizational structure, operations, behavior,
and institutional culture provides valuable perspectives for understanding
recordkeeping systems and the context of records creation, management,
and use.
7. Liberal Arts and Sciences
Ideally, persons beginning archival studies will already have a broad
background in the liberal arts. Nonetheless, further graduate work in
such disciplines can directly augment archival knowledge. Especially valuable
is education in fields that help explain the context of records creation
and the practice of recordkeeping û including sociology, philosophy, political
science, law, accounting, anthropology, and economics, as well as science
and the arts. Because the holdings of many archival institutions emanate
from or concentrate on specific social sectors or movements, specialized
knowledge in one or more humanities, social science, or science disciplines
may be an important asset for appraisal and reference work in some settings.
8. Allied Professions
The work of archivists and archival institutions intersects with that
of several other professions involved in the identification, protection,
and dissemination of recorded information. Among these are library and
information science, museology, oral history, historic preservation, and
historical editing. Probably the most common overlapping relationship
of this nature is with library and information science; archival repositories
are often situated in libraries, where archivists benefit from familiarity
with collection development, cataloging, and reference practices employed
by library professionals. Archives administration is not to be regarded
as a subsidiary of any related profession, including library and information
science. However, exposure to the distinct purposes and methods of allied
fields will be advantageous to archives students.
III. ADMINISTRATION, FACULTY, AND INFRASTRUCTURE
A. Faculty
The graduate program in archival studies must have a faculty capable
of accomplishing program objectives. Faculty should have: archival experience
including work within an archival repository, technological awareness,
effectiveness in teaching, a record of research and publishing within
the field, and active participation in professional organizations. A program
that meets these guidelines must have a minimum of one full-time, tenure-track
faculty member. Full-time faculty members must be eligible for appointment
to the graduate faculty within the parent institution û in virtually all
cases this equates, at minimum, to holding a PhD -- and must demonstrate
expertise by contributions to archival knowledge through publications
and professional service. The faculty must be sufficient in number and
in diversity of specialties to carry out the major share of the teaching,
research, and service activities required for the archival studies program.
In many instances, additional full- or part-time faculty will be required
to fulfill program objectives. Part-time or adjunct faculty, when appointed,
should balance and complement the teaching competencies of the full-time
faculty. Programs are enhanced when adjunct or part-time faculty have
extensive practical experience, demonstrated expertise through contributions
to professional knowledge through publication and professional service,
as well as excellent teaching credentials.
B. Program Duration
The appropriate duration of a graduate program in archival studies should
derive from the program's mission, goals, and objectives. A program with
more extensive educational goals will need a longer duration to achieve
them. In order to cover adequately the curriculum components outlined
above, however, a master's-level program must have a minimum of eighteen
(18) semester hours devoted exclusively to core archival knowledge, including
practical experience. Remaining credits should be in areas of interdisciplinary
knowledge or electives.
C. Structure of the Learning Process
Graduate education in archival studies requires several modes of instruction
and learning. Traditional coursework provides the best method of presenting
archival theory, principles, and methodology, as well as many areas of
interdisciplinary knowledge. Practical experience is necessary to apply
theory to workplace settings and to provide experiential learning. Scholarly
research enables students to explore dimensions of the field in greater
depth and to contribute original research to the professional discourse.
1. Coursework
Course work is the basic venue for graduate level archival education.
Course format (e.g., lecture, seminar, web-based, distance education)
will vary depending on the level of the information to be delivered and
the subject matter under consideration. Courses should employ a variety
of pedagogical techniques to teach the knowledge areas outlined in these
guidelines as well as to strengthen students' analytical, writing, and
speaking skills.
2. Practical Experience
Knowledge acquired in course work will ultimately find expression through
experiential learning in the workplace. In the context of master's level
archival education, practical experience is not an exercise to discover
theory and methods empirically; rather it allows students to verify their
understanding of archival principles by applying them in real-life situations
and to understand how to make adjustments so that archival principles
fit archival practice. Practical experience also provides students with
structured feedback on their applied archival skills and mentoring by
archivists working in the field.
Any form of experiential learning must serve primarily the student's
educational goals, even if a host institution ultimately benefits from
the work accomplished by the student. Any practical experience with a
host institution should be a structured program related to the student's
program of study. The program should be designed by faculty in collaboration
with the designated host institution's internship supervisor and include
provision for regular feedback and evaluation.
3. Scholarly Research
Scholarly research is an essential component of the archival studies
curriculum because it enhances students' ability to think critically and
rigorously about archival issues and their competence to analyze and critique
the literature. Research also has the potential to provide original contributions
to the archival literature and thus help to invigorate the profession.
Archival research can take on many forms and borrows methodologies from
a variety of fields in the humanities and social sciences. While most
previous archival research has been solitary, educational programs should
introduce students to and encourage collaborative research among archives
students as well as between archives students and students in other disciplines.
D. Physical Resources and Facilities
Instructional and research facilities and services for meeting the needs
of students and faculty include access to: collections of archival records
and papers; library and multimedia resources and services; computer and
other information technologies; and accommodations for independent and
group study. These facilities should be appropriately staffed, convenient,
and fully accessible. Students also should have regular and frequent access
to archives and manuscript repositories. This access can take the form
of class visits, research assignments in the repositories, and opportunities
for internships and other types of practical experience. It is particularly
important that the program have strong relationships with area repositories.
E. Administration, Placement, and Financial Support
The graduate program in archival studies must identify a program director
or administrator. The program director is responsible for making certain
that the program achieves its mission, goals, and objectives. The program
director must be a full-time tenure-track member of the faculty or staff
of the home department. Depending upon the scope and placement of the
program, he or she may have the title of director, chairperson, or dean.
Faculty must provide career counseling for students as well as vigorous
placement support. Career counseling is essential because of the variety
of potential venues for employment for archival students and the numerous
types of institutional and functional specializations available. Due to
the variety of ways in which employment opportunities are advertised or
announced, and the importance of professional recommendations, students
need vigorous efforts for placement support as they enter the job market.
The parent institution must provide continuing financial support sufficient
to develop and maintain the program. The level of support must provide
a reasonable expectation of financial viability and must consider the
number of faculty, administrative and support staff, instructional resources,
library and information services, and facilities needed to carry out the
archival education program's mission, goals, and objectives.
IV. CONCLUSION
These guidelines define the minimum requirements for a graduate program
in archival studies that is coherent, independent, and based on core archival
knowledge. Within this outline higher education institutions may create
a wide variety of programs offering master's degrees. This range of options
provides students with choices of direction and emphasis, and ultimately
enriches the profession by embracing diversity within a common core of
archival education. Graduates of such programs can anticipate rewarding
careers in a variety of professional positions, from textual archives
to electronic records systems, in institutions ranging from governmental
or institutional archives to local historical societies and high technology
enterprises. Archivists are increasingly in demand for modern information
service positions, and the value of archival knowledge continues
to gain recognition in an ever-broader range of organizational settings.
These guidelines are intended both to define the academic preparation
needed to meet these new challenges and to provide a strong common basis
for the diverse institutions which provide graduate archival education.
[1] The "Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies"
were approved by the Society of American Archivists (SAA) Council in January,
2002. These guidelines replace the "Guidelines for the Development
of a Curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies Degree," adopted
by Council in 1994. By means of these guidelines, the Society of American
Archivists endorses the development of coherent and independent graduate
programs in archival studies. SAA believes that programs of the extent
and nature outlined in these guidelines are the best form of pre-appointment
professional education for archivists. For this reason, these guidelines
supersede prior documents on archival education issued in 1977, 1988,
and 1994.
[2] Archival records and papers are recorded information, regardless
of physical format or type of creator (public or private), that is created
or received by an individual or organization carrying out its activities
and that is set aside for preservation and future use. Archival records
and papers are instrumental for evidence and accountability as well as
for social and cultural memory. In these guidelines, the phrase records
and papers will be used to encompass documentary evidence produced by
organizations and individuals in all media (paper, digital, audio, and
visual) and in any format.
[3] For information about archival education programs in North
America, including a directory of such programs, see the SAA web site
at http://www.archivists.org.
[4]
The interdisciplinary character of archival education makes it possible
to place a program in a variety of settings, such as a school of library
and information science, a department of history, a school of public administration,
a law school, or a school of business administration. Two departments
may also administer a program jointly, thereby emphasizing the interdisciplinarity
of the archival field.
[5] The Academy of Certified Archivists has developed a useful
list of domains of archival knowledge. See the "Role Delineation" section
of the Handbook for Archival Certification, online at: http://www.certifiedarchivists.org.
|
|
