Introduction
Archival Education: Mission and Goals
Curriculum
Administration, Faculty and Infrastructure
Conclusion
Archivists are responsible for the identification, selection, protection, organization, description, and preservation of archival records and papers and, eventually, for their accessibility by any user.[2] By ensuring that archival documents are identified, preserved, and made available in a systematic fashion, archivists help to secure society's cultural heritage, protect legal rights and privileges, support reusability of research data and results, and contribute to the effective management of a wide range of institutions. Without careful selection of records, society’s individual, commercial, cultural, institutional, scientific, and social heritages will be lost. Without the preservation of legal documents, individual and institutional rights cannot be preserved and protected. Finally, without the proper management of administrative records, governments and organizations cannot be held accountable. Records held in archives are, thus, essential in a democratic and educated society.
Per the Society of American Archivists' strategic plan, "The relevance of archives to society and the completeness of the documentary record hinge on the profession’s success in ensuring that its members, the holdings that they collect and manage, and the users whom they serve reflect the diversity of society as a whole." A graduate program in archival education should embrace this philosophy through its course offerings, faculty, and student body. (See the entire strategic plan at http://www2.archivists.org/governance/strategic-priorities.)
Records come in all formats and on a multitude of media. Archivists and manuscript curators have centuries of expertise in managing and preserving paper-based records. The management and long-term preservation of digital objects, however, presents new and complex challenges for archivists. It is essential that archival education programs educate their graduates to preserve today's cultural, governmental, scientific, and personal documentary heritage, be it paper-based or digital.
The current guidelines recognize the growth and maturation of archival studies programs and serve as a benchmark against which graduate programs in archival studies may be measured. These guidelines establish minimum standards for archival education programs in terms of mission, curriculum, faculty, and infrastructure.
Graduates of such programs can anticipate careers in a variety of professional positions, from archives or records management to digital archives management or historical records preservation in institutions ranging from government or institutional archives and local historical societies and high-technology business enterprises. Graduates of archival programs are increasingly in demand for information management positions, and the value of archival knowledge continues to gain recognition in an ever-broader range of organizational settings, such as digital forensics. These guidelines are intended both to define the academic preparation needed to meet these new challenges and to identify a strong common core of archival knowledge that the diverse institutions that provide graduate archival education should all deliver.
The ultimate goal of these guidelines is to improve the quality of graduate programs in archival studies, specifically by raising the minimum expectations of students and universities. By establishing these basic guidelines as minimum standards for archival studies programs, SAA also hopes to encourage the continued development of more extensive and more comprehensive programs and, by doing so, to improve the archival profession by better educating its members.[3]
[1] The "Guidelines for a Graduate Program in Archival Studies" (GPAS) were approved by the Society of American Archivists (SAA) Council in January 2002 and revised in 2005 and 2011. GPAS replaced the "Guidelines for the Development of a Curriculum for a Master of Archival Studies Degree," adopted by the Council in 1994. By means of these guidelines, the Society of American Archivists endorses the development of coherent and independent graduate programs in archival studies. SAA believes that programs of the extent and nature outlined in these guidelines are the best form of pre-appointment professional education for archivists. For this reason, these guidelines supersede prior documents on archival education issued in 1977, 1988, and 1994.
[2] Archival records and papers are recorded information, regardless of physical format or type of creator (public or private), that is created or received by an individual or organization carrying out its activities and that is set aside for preservation and future use. Archival records and papers are instrumental for evidence and accountability as well as for social and cultural memory. In these guidelines, the phrase “records and papers” will be used to encompass documentary evidence produced by organizations and individuals in all media (paper, digital, audio, and visual) and in any format.
[3] For information about archival education programs in North America, including a directory of such programs, see the SAA website at http://www2.archivists.org/gpas.
Best Practices for Internships as a Component of Graduate Archival Education
Introduction
Archival Education: Mission and Goals
Curriculum
Administration, Faculty and Infrastructure
Conclusion
Any graduate program in archival studies must define its mission, goals, and objectives. Some programs may seek to educate "generalists" with knowledge of all areas of records and archives administration. Other programs may seek to prepare specialists in areas such as electronic records management, historical manuscripts, or management of institutional archives. Still other programs may emphasize interdisciplinary studies that link, for example, archival, library, and museum knowledge. However, to qualify as an archival studies program (as opposed to a more specialized historical manuscripts program or a general information science program) the curriculum should focus on core archival knowledge areas as the foundation of any specialization or interdisciplinary education.
The mission, goals, and objectives of the program should be stated in terms of educational results that the program seeks to achieve and should be consistent with the parent institution's mission and culture. [4] They should be developed through a broad-based planning process that involves the constituencies that the program seeks to serve. The curriculum should express these program objectives and should be reviewed and evaluated continually based on evolving professional responsibilities, competencies, and challenges. Regardless of the organizational setting, master's-level archival studies programs must be coherent, cohesive, and identifiable.
The importance and complexity of archival work require that individuals entering the profession receive a strong graduate-level archival education, which must be based on core archival knowledge. This knowledge must be supplemented, however, by knowledge drawn from other disciplines, including, but not limited to: anthropology, economics, history, law, library and information science, museum studies, and sociology. A fully developed graduate program in archival studies must establish a curriculum that achieves the following goals:
Graduate education, in contrast to training, is both academic and professional; therefore, it includes both original research and experiential learning. Ultimately, archival education creates an intellectual framework that enables students to understand the ideas on which their profession is founded, to engage in the development of archival principles, and to apply this knowledge in a wide variety of settings. In contrast, archival training focuses on building skills or acquiring practical knowledge according to a replicable pattern or on developing a specialization in certain areas.
The graduate of an archival studies program should have a thorough knowledge and understanding of archival principles and methods and should be prepared to work independently in the performance of all basic archival functions.[5] The variety and complexity of institutional settings and the nature of records in our digital society require a broad range of skills and knowledge as well as a comprehensive understanding of archival theory and its practical application to manage and preserve current – as well as future – archival content.
No graduate program in any discipline can provide all the scholarly and experiential knowledge needed for its practitioners. However, by educating students in the attributes of professionalism, a graduate program can cause students to realize that professional education is a lifelong undertaking, involving questioning accepted ideas and methods, revising received wisdom, and developing professional standards. Lifelong learning enables archivists to maintain knowledge and skills and to master new knowledge and techniques as their profession develops and changes.
These guidelines, therefore, focus on the essential elements of master's-level graduate archival education, independent of institutional placement and degree offered. The multiple options for such programs provide a rich diversity that enables master's programs to develop individual emphases and to provide different specializations. Knowledge from other disciplines brought to bear on the archival studies program enriches and expands the archival curriculum to meet a wide range of needs and interests.
[4] The interdisciplinary character of archival education makes it possible to place a program in a variety of settings, such as a school of library and information science, a department of history, a school of public administration, a law school, or a school of business administration. Two departments may also administer a program jointly, thereby emphasizing the interdisciplinary nature of the archival field.
[5] The Academy of Certified Archivists has developed a useful list of domains of archival knowledge. See the "Role Delineation" section of the Handbook for Archival Certification (found within the "Exam Handbook") online at http://www.certifiedarchivists.org.
Introduction
Archival Education: Mission and Goals
Curriculum
Administration, Faculty and Infrastructure
Conclusion
A graduate program in archival studies should provide students with a solid foundation in archival science. The curriculum should focus on archival theory, methodology, and practice and should be augmented by instruction in economics, history, information studies, law, management, and technology as they relate to archival work. Delivery of courses in these complementary areas should be informed by an understanding of the nature of archives and the ways in which the methods and perspectives of these fields contribute to professional archival practice.
As stated above, the body of knowledge that a student should master as part of a graduate archival education comprises both core archival knowledge and complementary knowledge.
During the course of a graduate program, eighteen (18) semester credit hours should be in areas defined as core archival knowledge. Based on the demands of the graduate program's institution and the interests of the student, the remaining credits may be in complementary knowledge areas. Research should be integrated throughout the curriculum, and an important element of any program should be an original research project resulting in a scholarly paper or thesis. The program should also include practical experience, such as a practicum or internship.
Rationale:
The identity of a profession is founded on an exclusive body of knowledge and on a professional culture that arises from a common history, a united purpose, a shared vocabulary, and collective values, norms, and standards. Archival core knowledge is the heart of an archival studies program. It should occupy a dominant position in the curriculum and should be taught by full-time archival educators, professional archivists, or other individuals with a depth of archival knowledge relevant to the topic. Core archival knowledge embraces three separate but interrelated facets of archival studies: Knowledge of Archival Material and Archival Functions (theory and methodology associated with specific areas of archival work); Knowledge of the Profession (history of the profession and evolution of archival practice); and Contextual Knowledge (the contexts within which records are created, managed, and kept). Because archival knowledge and professional culture transcend geographical and national boundaries, each component should incorporate an international and multicultural perspective.
Components:
Archival education should teach the fundamental concepts concerning the nature of archival material in all forms and archival functions (archival theory), the techniques for performing archival functions (archival methodology), and the implementation of theory and method in real situations (archival practice). Instruction should cover the history of archival theory and methods and their articulation in the professional literature (archival scholarship). The scope of archival education should encompass all archival functions and should address both current best practices and related management issues.
Archival education should provide students with an understanding of the ways in which the profession has developed and how its specific practices have evolved. It should teach students about the nature of archival institutions, units and programs, the values and ethics that archivists bring to their work, and the perspectives that archivists contribute to the information professions.
Components:
All graduates of archival studies programs should have a basic understanding of the contexts within which records are created and kept and of management and technology theory and practice as they apply to archival work. This knowledge should be integrated throughout the core curriculum wherever applicable so as to foster a sound working knowledge that can be applied to daily activities. Some of these areas of knowledge may also be studied more fully as disciplines in their own right; therefore, they are also listed under Complementary Knowledge below.
Components:
Rationale:
Archivists must rely on knowledge, methods, and perspectives derived from disciplines beyond their own. The interdisciplinary nature of archival studies arises from the complexity of archival materials, the contexts of their creation, the multiplicity of their potential uses, and the many roles that graduates of archival studies programs fill. Graduates should be knowledgeable about significant theories, methods, and practices of some or all the following fields.
Components:
The diplomatic and archival concept of records through time, in the analog as well as the digital environment; the characteristics of records (i.e. naturalness, interrelatedness, impartiality, authenticity, uniqueness) and their components, formal elements, and attributes; the trustworthiness of records (reliability, accuracy, authenticity, identity, and integrity) and authentication; the perfection of records (i.e. draft, original, copy, image); the way records aggregate and their forms of aggregation; the concept of archives (or archival fonds) and its history (including the concept of record group); the records tradition versus the manuscripts tradition in the United States; the concept of papers (differences between United States and United Kingdom); the structure of archival bodies of material; the macro approach versus the micro approach to the concept of archives; and archives as a place and as an institution.
The theory, methods, policies, and procedures used to identify, evaluate, acquire, and authenticate records and papers, in all forms, which have enduring value to records creators, institutions, researchers, and society. Appraisal entails, among other things, understanding what makes records and papers authentic, reliable, and useful to institutions, individuals, legal and financial authorities, and other constituents.
The intellectual and physical organization of archival records and papers in all forms, according to archival principles and institutional considerations, and the development of descriptive tools and systems that provide both control of and access to collections. Teaching methods and technology applications should link theory to practice.
The physical and intellectual protection of records and papers in all forms, including the activities required to ensure their continuing accessibility, such as digitization, microfilming, or migration. Preservation knowledge comprises a firm grounding in preservation history; research into the nature of the materials and treatments; current techniques and technologies; and administrative studies and management issues.
The policies and procedures designed to serve the information needs of various user groups, based on institutional mandates and constituencies, the nature of the materials, relevant laws and ethical considerations, and appropriate technologies. Instruction should also include the study of user behavior, user education, information retrieval techniques and technologies, user-based evaluation techniques, and the interaction between archivist and user in the reference process.
The theories and practices used to identify archival constituencies and their needs and to develop programs to promote increased use, understanding of archival materials and methods, resources, visibility, and support.
The principles and practices that are used to facilitate all aspects of archival work through careful planning and administration of the repository, unit, or program, and its institutional resources. At all career levels, archivists manage resources and make decisions and often must demonstrate programmatic vision and innovation. Thus graduates should know the fundamental principles related to organizational management, strategic planning, systems analysis, program planning, budgeting, administrative leadership, human resources management, financial management, resource allocation, fundraising, grant writing, and the management of buildings, facilities, storage systems, and other equipment.
The principles involved in managing records and information throughout their full life cycles, from creation and for as long as the records will be needed by their creator for the purposes of its business, functions, or activities. The work of archivists relates closely to the responsibilities of records and information managers, and in some institutional environments the duties of each are blended together in a single function. All graduates of archival studies programs should be able to analyze a creator's structure, decision-making, and recordkeeping systems and apply that knowledge to decisions regarding other archival functions.
Graduates of archival studies programs should be able to apply their knowledge to records in all forms. They should have gained an understanding of the nature, issues, and preservation challenges of digital records of organizations and individuals. They should have knowledge of file formats, media types, and complex information technologies for the creation, maintenance, use, and preservation of all types of records. Additionally, archival studies programs should teach students to develop management systems for records and to identify and implement appropriate technological solutions to facilitate all aspects of archival work.
A graduate program in archival studies should teach the historical development of record-making and recordkeeping systems and of archives in various civilizations. This instruction should cover the structure of the archival community internationally, and in North America in particular; the types of archival repositories and programs in existence in the United States and Canada, along with their policies and procedures; and the legislation and regulations governing records, archives, and archival work in the United States and Canada. Instruction also should address the history of the archival profession; its missions, roles, and values; and the profession's temporary concerns.
Records and papers in all forms constitute an important part of the written memory of individuals and society. They provide the basis for holding governments and organizations accountable and for protecting the rights of individuals. Archival institutions thus play a significant role in society. However, they are only part of the fabric of cultural memory. Archivists and archives work in cooperation with other professionals (including, but not limited to, those who work for historical societies, libraries, and museums) to preserve and provide access to cultural memory. Students should understand the interrelationships among archives and other stewards of cultural heritage and the ways in which records complement that heritage.
The archives profession bases its system of ethics and values on the responsibilities of archivists in identifying, preserving, protecting, and making available records and papers in all forms and information resources for which they are responsible. Students should be familiar with the SAA Code of Ethics, its underlying principles and perspectives, and its relationship to other related professions’ codes of ethics. Students should understand how the ethics and values of the profession inform decisions and how to apply those ethics and values to their work.
Knowledge of social and cultural systems is important for two reasons. First, graduates must understand the institutional and individual structures and systems that form the context in which records and papers are created, maintained, and used. They should also understand the recordkeeping implications of social and cultural systems and the organizational structures and procedures used by all types of public and private institutions to ensure accountability. Second, graduates must understand the political, social, and economic dynamics within their organization to achieve their archival repository's goals and objectives.
Records and papers, and the recordkeeping systems of both institutions and individuals, result from and, therefore, reflect the legal and financial systems in which they were created and demonstrate organizational and individual accountability. Archival core knowledge includes the origin, development, structure, and functioning of legal and financial systems, including federal, state, and local laws as well as the regulatory environment. This should include both public and private sector jurisdictions. Knowledge of legal issues also includes privacy rights, freedom of information legislation, and a wide variety of intellectual property rights, display and performance rights, and literary rights related to recorded material in all forms.
Most contemporary records are created, stored, maintained, used, and preserved in digital form. Familiarity with networking, hardware, software, and digital systems in general is fundamental to performing archival functions in the 21st century. Graduates of archival studies programs should understand human/computer interaction (to design and develop effective systems for users), the importance of information standards, and how to evaluate systems and related services effectively. The curriculum could include opportunities to develop skills in database design and management, spreadsheet applications, information architecture, website design and creation, and/or desktop publishing. Also valuable are an understanding of metadata schemas, familiarity with markup languages, and basic programming skills.
Beyond the core archival knowledge of preservation, appropriate knowledge may be needed in conservation practices, that is, a range of intervention activities to stabilize materials in their original format by chemical or physical means. Graduates should have sufficient understanding of this discipline to be able to judge the efficacy of conservation treatments and to evaluate the appropriate conservation treatment for a document or group of documents. For digital materials, graduates should have sufficient understanding of digital object recovery techniques and digital security technologies.
An understanding of research design and execution is important for enabling graduates to provide effective service to a wide variety of researchers and to evaluate archival operations from the perspective of users. It also allows graduates to assess the status of research in their own discipline, to undertake new research, and to blend theoretical and empirical aspects of archival studies into scholarly investigations.
History provides an understanding of the context in which records and papers are created, maintained, and used and of the cultural, economic, legal, political, and social systems that shape society. History assists graduates in understanding the evolution of organizations and their functions and the activities of individuals, thus contributing to more effective archival selection, appraisal, description, and user service. Graduates should also exercise the historian's skills in evaluating evidence and the context of its creation. Knowledge of research methods enables archivists to understand the potential uses of archival materials to provide more effective reference assistance for all users.
Frequently, students beginning archival studies will already have a broad background in the liberal arts. Nonetheless, further graduate work in such disciplines can directly augment archival knowledge. Especially valuable is education in fields that help explain the context of records creation and the practice of recordkeeping, including accounting, anthropology, economics, law, philosophy, political science, and sociology, as well as science and the arts. Because the holdings of many archival institutions emanate from or concentrate on specific social sectors or movements, specialized knowledge in one or more humanities, social science, or science disciplines may be an important asset for appraisal and reference work in some settings.
Ideally, persons beginning archival studies will already have a broad background in the liberal arts. Nonetheless, further graduate work in such disciplines can directly augment archival knowledge. Especially valuable is education in fields that help explain the context of records creation and the practice of recordkeeping—including sociology, philosophy, political science, law, accounting, anthropology, and economics, as well as science and the arts. Because the holdings of many archival institutions emanate from or concentrate on specific social sectors or movements, specialized knowledge in one or more humanities, social science, or science disciplines may be an important asset for appraisal and reference work in some settings.
The work of archivists and archival institutions intersects with that of several other professions involved in the identification, protection, and dissemination of recorded information. Among these are library and information science, museum studies, oral history, historic preservation, and historical editing. The most common overlapping relationship of this nature is with library and information science because archival repositories are often situated in libraries, where archivists benefit from familiarity with collection development, cataloging, and reference practices employed by librarians. Archives administration is not to be regarded as a branch of any related profession, including library and information science. However, exposure to the distinct purposes and methods of allied fields will be advantageous to archives students.
Introduction
Archival Education: Mission and Goals
Curriculum
Administration, Faculty and Infrastructure
Conclusion
A. Faculty
The graduate program in archival studies must have a faculty capable of accomplishing program objectives. Faculty should have a deep understanding of the profession and archival work, strong ties to both the academic and professional communities, technological knowledge and skills, effectiveness in teaching, a record of research and publishing within the field, and active participation in professional organizations. A program that meets these guidelines must have a minimum of one full-time, tenure-track faculty member. Full-time faculty members must be eligible for appointment to the graduate faculty within the parent institution (in virtually all cases this equates, at minimum, to holding a doctoral degree) and must demonstrate expertise by contributions to archival knowledge through publications and professional service. The faculty must be sufficient in number and in diversity of specialties to carry out the major share of the teaching, research, and service activities required for the program and to deliver the core knowledge of archival studies to give stability to the program. In many instances, additional full- or part-time faculty will be required to fulfill program objectives. Part-time or adjunct faculty, when appointed, should balance and complement the teaching competencies of the full-time faculty. Programs are enhanced when adjunct or part-time faculty have extensive practical experience, demonstrated expertise through contributions to professional knowledge through publication and professional service, and excellent teaching credentials.
B. Program Duration
The appropriate duration of a graduate program in archival studies should be consistent with that of all graduate programs in the hosting school or university in which it is situated. To cover the curriculum components outlined above adequately, however, a master's-level archival program should have a minimum of eighteen (18) semester hours devoted exclusively to core archival knowledge, including practical experience. Remaining credits can be in areas of complementary knowledge or electives.
C. Structure of the Learning Process
Graduate education in archival studies requires several modes of instruction and learning. Coursework provides the best method of presenting archival theory, principles, and methodology, as well as many areas of interdisciplinary knowledge. Practical experience is necessary to apply theory to workplace settings and to provide experiential learning. Scholarly research enables students to explore dimensions of the field in greater depth and to contribute original research to the professional discourse.
Coursework is the basic venue for graduate-level archival education, and course format (e.g., lecture, seminar, web-based, distance education) will vary. Courses should employ a variety of pedagogical techniques to teach the knowledge areas outlined in these guidelines as well as to strengthen students' analytical, writing, and speaking skills.
Practical Experience
Knowledge acquired in coursework will be enhanced through experiential learning in the workplace. In the context of master's-level archival education, practical experience is not an exercise to discover theory and methods empirically; rather, it allows students to verify their understanding of archival principles by applying them in real-life situations and to understand how to make adjustments so that archival principles fit archival practice. Practical experience also provides students with structured feedback on their applied archival skills and with mentoring by records professionals working in the field.
Any form of experiential learning must serve the student's educational goals primary, even if a host institution ultimately benefits from the work accomplished by the student. Any practical experience with a host institution should be a structured program related to the student's program of study. The program should be designed by faculty in collaboration with the designated host institution's internship supervisor and include provision for regular feedback and evaluation.
Scholarly Research
Scholarly research is an essential component of the archival studies curriculum because it enhances students' ability to think critically and rigorously about archival issues and strengthens their competence to analyze and critically review the literature. Research also has the potential to provide original contributions to the archival literature and thus helps to invigorate the profession. Archival research can take on many forms and can borrow methodologies from a variety of fields in the humanities and social sciences. Although much archival research has been the result of an individual effort, education programs should introduce students to collaborative research and encourage it within and outside their own discipline.
D. Resources and Facilities
Instructional and research resources and facilities for meeting the needs of students and faculty include access to core archival literature, library and multimedia resources and services, computers and information technologies, and accommodations for independent and group study. Facilities should be appropriately staffed, convenient, and fully accessible. Students should also have regular and frequent access to archives and manuscript repositories. Repository access can take the form of class visits, research assignments in the repositories, and opportunities for internships and other types of practical experience. It is particularly important for a program to have strong relationships with area repositories.
E. Administration, Placement, and Financial Support
The graduate program in archival studies must identify a program director or administrator. The program director is responsible for making certain that the program achieves its mission, goals, and objectives. The program director must be a full-time tenure-track member of the faculty or staff of the home department. Depending on the scope and placement of the program, he or she may have the title of director, chairperson, or dean.
Programs must provide career counseling for students as well as vigorous placement support. Career counseling is essential because of the variety of potential venues for employment for archival students and of the numerous types of institutional and functional specializations available. Due to the variety of ways in which employment opportunities are advertised or announced and to the importance of professional recommendations, students need vigorous efforts for placement support as they enter the job market.
The parent institution must provide continuing financial support that is sufficient to develop and maintain the program. The level of support must provide a reasonable expectation of financial viability and must consider the number of faculty, administrative and support staff, instructional resources, library and information services, and facilities needed to carry out the archival education program's mission, goals, and objectives.
Introduction
Archival Education: Mission and Goals
Curriculum
Administration, Faculty and Infrastructure
Conclusion
These guidelines define the minimum requirements for a graduate program in archival studies that is coherent, independent, and based on core archival knowledge. Within this outline higher education institutions may create a wide variety of programs offering master's degrees. This range of options provides students with choices of direction and emphasis, and ultimately enriches the profession by embracing diversity within a common core of archival education. Graduates of such programs can anticipate rewarding careers in a variety of professional positions, from textual archives to electronic records systems, in institutions ranging from governmental or institutional archives to local historical societies and high technology enterprises. Archivists are increasingly in demand for modern information service positions, and the value of archival knowledge continues to gain recognition in an ever-broader range of organizational settings. These guidelines are intended both to define the academic preparation needed to meet these new challenges and to provide a strong common basis for the diverse institutions which provide graduate archival education.